Oddiyana

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Oddiyana (Skt. Oḍḍiyāna; Tib. ཨུ་རྒྱན་, Orgyen; Wyl. u rgyan) — often described as ‘the land of the Dakinis’, once a historical place has transformed over time into a mythical pure land in which the tantric teachings blossom and thrive. Based on its profound religious significance and mythological associations, the accounts of Uddiyana often involve a captivating combination of myth and history.[1] Almost every great Indian Buddhist master who had any significant influence on the development of tantra is associated with Uddiyana. In many cases Uddiyana is said to have been visited physically by these masters, however throughout history Buddhist masters also recounted to have visited Uddiyana in pure visions and dreams. Uddiyana thus had a deep impact on the tantric traditions of both Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike.

Name

Uddiyana in Sanskrit is referred to by various names. Besides U/Oḍḍiyāna we also find the mentions of U/Oḍḍiyāna, U/Oḍḍayana, U/Oḍiyāna, U/Oḍyāna, and Ōṭiyana.[2] To Tibetans it is known as O/Urgyen Yul (Tib. o/u rgyan yul) Urgyen (Tib. u rgyan), Odiyana (Tib. o ddi ya na) and sometimes also Oyen (Tib. o yan). The Tibetan words are an attempt to render the Sanskrit in Tibetan. Thus they convey no meaning, except for Urgyen Yul. According to Gendün Chöpel (Tib. dge 'dun chos 'phel, 1903-1951) Urgyen Yul could be translated as ‘the land or country adorned with Udumbara lotuses.’[3] Though these words look similar, the differences in spelling convey a different meaning. Thus, U/Oḍḍiyāna and U/Oḍḍayana are derived from the Sanskrit root ḍī[4] and are translated as flying or soaring.[5] U/Oḍḍiyāna in South Indian languages and in the yoga tradition refers to a belt worn by a woman either as jewelry or as a support for meditation.[6] In Hata Yoga Uḍḍīyana is a term employed referring to the abdominal area.[7] U/Oḍyāna translates as garden or royal garden. Ōṭiyana, Gendün Chöpel explains, could refer to the inhabitants known as the ‘Ōṭi tribe’.[8] Due to the many variations it is quite likely that the different names are the result of an adoption and adaption of the original name from either a dialect or another language spoken in the area.

Significance

Within the Nyingma tradition of Tibetan Buddhism Uddiyana plays a vital role in the transmission of the scriptures of the three Inner Tantras of Maha-, Anu- and Atiyoga. Dudjom Rinpochementions that the Mahayoga Tantras were transmitted to King Ja (or Kuñjara) of Uddiyana and/or Zahor.[9] Thus although Mahayoga Tantras may not have originate in Uddiyana, most of its Indian forefathers such as Kukkuraja, Lilavajra, Buddhajnanapada taught the Mahayoga Tantras in Uddiyana. Likewise, the eight great Vidyadharas and/or their disciples, the revealers of the Eight Great Sadhana Teachings (Tib. bka' brgyad), in several accounts resided and taught in Uddiyana. The Atiyoga, the highest teachings of the Nyingma tradition, claim Uddiyana as their place of origin. It is said that Garab Dorje (Tib. dga’ rab rdo rje), their originator, while practicing in Uddiyana received the Atiyoga teachings directly from Vajrasattva in a vision. Particularly in the Nyingma school Uddiyana is widely celebrated as the birthplace of founder of the Nyingma school, Padmasambhava. According to most life-stories, Padmasambhava miraculously took birth in a lotus in the lake of Dhanakosha in Uddiyana. Indrabhuti, the king of Uddiyana, found and adopted Padmasambhava.[10] After firmly establishing Buddhism in Tibet, he sets out to prevent the danger of an invasion of the human realm by Rakshasas demons. He then travels to the mystical land of the Rakhsasas. Upon his arrival he subjugates the Rakhsasa king ‘Powerful Skull Garland’ (Tib. rak sha thod phreng) and transforms the country into his pure-realm. In several accounts Uddiyana is equated with Padmasambhava’s final destination. Thus it states in Yeshe Tsogyal’s biography of Padmasambhava: “King Mutig Tsenpo of Tibet and the close disciples went home, suppressed by the anguish that Mast Padma had departed to the land of Uddiyana.”[11] Uddiyana is thus regarded as Padmasambhava’s pure-realm known as Zangdokpalri (Tib. zangs mdog dpal ri, Eng. Copper-Colored Mountain of Glory).[12]

The Sarma schools assert Uddiyana to be the birthplace of the Guhyasamaja Tantra.[13] Dudjom Rinpoche writes: “… the Teacher himself taught the tantras to Indrabhuti, the king of Uddiyana. It is also held that Vajrapani entrusted them to him.”[14] As a result of the spread of these tantric teachings all the inhabitants are said to have reached the level of the Vidyadharas and their children became dakas and dakinis. Thus the country became known as ‘the land of the Dakinis’.[15] Great Indian tantric masters of the Sarma tradition are connected to Uddiyana, such as Tilopa, Naropa, Virupa, Niguma, Sukasiddhi and Kambala. Moreover, within the Chakrasamvara and Hevajra Tantras, twenty-four sacred sites are enumerated as the Nirmanakaya manifestations of Vajrayogini. These sites constitute the external mandala of Vajrayogini and are extremely important for tantric practice. Among them Uddiyana is considered to be particularly sacred. However, these sacred sites do not only refer to external locations, but also to our own body as well as to the stages and attainments on the Bodhisattva path.[16]

In the Shakti Shaiva (Skt. Śakti Śaiva) tradition of Hinduism Uddiyana is regarded as one of the four great sacred places (Skt. caturmahapīṭhas). Jnanestra (Skt. Jñānanetra), a great Shakti Shaiva saint is said to have traveled in the mid 9th century to the charnel ground of Uddiyana. There he met Mangaladevi (Skt. Maṅgalādevī, aka Kālī) in a vision, who bestowed on him a special lineage of teachings on non-dualistic tantra, which later became known as the ‘Krama’.[17] One of their commentaries, the Kalikulakramasadbhava (Skt. Kālīkulakramasadbhāva[18] recounts: “In the external world it is Oḍyāna, the great pīṭha, the best of all pīṭhas, the resort of siddhas and yoginīs, located in the northern region, in which this great sequence of the circles that I am relating as it truly is was directly experienced by the Nātha of the Inner Eye [Jñānanetra]’.”[19]

In comparison, both Buddhist and non-Buddhist traditions, association Uddiyana strongly with female divinities. Though non-Buddhists tantras speak of yoginis, Buddhist tantras use the terms yogini and dakini interchangeably.[20] Thus yogini and dakini refer to the same class of female divinities. Both Buddhists and non-Buddhists regard Uddiyana as part of an external mandala of Vajrayogini or Shakti. Jnananetra, founder of the Krama, traveled to Uddiyana around the time Padmasambhava was possibly residing there. He received teachings as a result of having practiced on the charnel ground of Uddiyana. Therefore, both Buddhists and non-Buddhists regard Uddiyana’s charnel ground to be a key element in the revelation of their tantric lineages. Furthermore, Alexis Sanderson compares the teachings of the Krama with the Atiyoga teachings of the Nyingma tradition. He observes that both approaches present themselves as highest approaches to reality transcending all others. However, rather than disregarding the lower approaches they integrate them. Sanderson argues that both Krama and Atiyoga teach realization to be gained through recognition and subsequently remaining in a non-conceptual state of awareness.[21]

Location

Uddiyana was probably first mentioned by Chinese pilgrims. Faxian (337 – c. 422), Song Yun (? - 528) and Xuanzang (602–664, India 629–641) travelled to an area they refer to as U-chang or U-chang-na, which is commonly agreed a transliteration of Udyana (Skt. Uḍyāna).[22] Based on the accounts of these pilgrims, Udyana was thus identified with the Swat district in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan. Although identifying Uddiyana with Swat is nowadays agreed upon among most western scholars, some still doubt it.

Tibetan Pilgrims

Orgyenpa (Tib. o rgyan pa rin chen dpal, 1230-1309) is the most well known Tibetan pilgrim to have travelled to Uddiyana. However by the time he reached the Swat valley, Buddhism had already almost completely disappeared.[23] His travel itinerary, ‘A Guide to Uddiyana’ (Tib. o rgyan lam yig), quickly became the main source of information on Uddiyana for the Tibetans. The accounts of his journey are of a rather mystical nature. His descriptions and encounters often involve dakinis and other divine beings. Nevertheless, based on them, one can gain a fairly accurate picture of his route as well as the cities and areas he visited.[24] Orgyenpa depicts his journey to the center of Uddiyana with his travel companion as follows: “After half a day we reached Dhumathala. This is the heart of Uḍḍiyāna, the land of miraculous power. When we saw that place our cries were beyond counting. Before it there dwells a self-born [image] of the goddess Maṅgaladevī made of sandal-wood”[25]

Historical Perspective

The Swat area, as a place of Buddhist practice gained already significant importance in the 3rd century BCE under the rule of king Ashoka (304–232 BCE).[26] Xuanzang describes the area he refers to as U-chang-na as 5000 li (1350 km) in circuit, a fertile land, with abundant fruits and flowers and thick forests and a moderate climate, inhabited by gentle and cultured people. With regard to the practice of Buddhism Xuanzang describes that although as many as 1,400 Buddhist centers were spread along the Swat river, many of them were deserted.[27] Xuanzang says that although the people study the Mahayana, they do not necessarily understand it. With regard to a possible tantric practice environment Song Yun tells the story of a king travelling to the country of U-chang in order to learn the spells of the Brahmins. Xuanzang mentions that the inhabitants ‘practice the art of using charms’ and that the priest purposely forbid them.[28] Sanderson further supports the claim of tantric practice in Uḍḍiyāna quoting the Manjushrimulakalpa (Skt. Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa) which states: “[These] excellent Mantras can be mastered in the North: in Kāpiśa, Balkh, throughout Uḍiyāna, in Kashmir, Sindh, and in the valleys of the Himalaya’.”[29]

In recent times, archeological research in Swat conducted over the last 20 years, revealed many images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas[30] of the 7th and 8th century representing the ‘final flourishing of Buddhist art in the region’.[31] Astonishing is the lack of Vajrayana artefacts expected form an area depicted as the Vajrayana country par excellence. A possible explanation might be the decline the area was in due to many outer factors, such as calamities and political instability. These made it increasingly difficult for the practice and further development of Buddhism.[32] Thus Filigenzi in her archeological research article concludes: “Swat saw the emergence of the Vajrayana, the last off shoot of a long tradition that would blossom into the extraordinary florescence with which we are familiar elsewhere.”[33]

Buddhism came to a sudden end in the 11th century, due to Muslim invasions led by Mahmud of Ghazni (971–1030), who plundered the cities and destroyed the temples.[34] Dalton however suggests, that although Muslim invasions put an end to Buddhist institutions it continued to be practiced in the more rural areas, particularly at the borders to Tibet.[35] Due to the increasingly hostile environment the remaining Buddhist slowly migrated to Tibet.

Further Reading

  • Beal, Samuel. Si-yu-ki. Buddhist Records of the Western World. Translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang, AD 629. London: Trübner, 1884.
  • Bhattacharya, Benoytosh. Sādhanamālā. 2 volumes. Gaewkwad’s Oriental Series 41. Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1968.
  • Bogin, Benjamin. "Locating the Copper-Colored Mountain: Buddhist Cosmology, Himalayan Geography, and Maps of Imagined Worlds." Himalaya, the Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies 34, no. 2, 201.
  • Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad, ed. Taranatha's History of Buddhism in India. Motilal Banarsidass, 1990.
  • Dalton, Jacob P. The uses of the dgongs pa ‘dus pa’i mdo in the development of the rnyinng-ma school of Tibetan Buddhism. Asian Language and Cultures: Buddhist Studies. The University of Michigan, 2002.
  • Davidson, Ronald M. "Reflections on the Mahdvara Subjugation Myth: Indic Materials, Sa-skya-pa Apologetics, and the Birth of Heruka." journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 14.2, 1991: 197-235.
  • Davidson, Ronald M. Hidden Realms and Pure Abodes: Central Asian Buddhism as Frontier Religion in the Literature of India, Nepal and Tibet. Pacific World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies 3rd ser. no. 4, 2002: 153-181.
  • Davidson, Ronald M. Indian Esoteric Buddhism: Social History of the Tantric Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 2003.
  • Donaldson, Thomas E. Iconography of the Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa: Text. Vol. 1. Abhinav Publications, 2001.
  • Dudjom Rinpoche. The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: Its Fundamentals and History. Translated and edited by Gyurme Dorje and Matthew Kapstein. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 1991.
  • Gendun, Chopel. Grains of Gold: Tales of a Cosmopolitan Traveler. University of Chicago Press, 2014.
  • Gray, David B. "On the Very Idea of a Tantric Canon." Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies 5 (2009): 1-37.
  • Gray, David B. The Cakrasamvara Tantra: A Study and Annotated Translation. American Institute of Buddhist Studies, New York, 2007.
  • Granoff, Phyllis. "Mahdvara/Mahakala: A Unique Buddhist Image from Kasmir." Artibus Asiae 41, 1979: 64 – 82.
  • Huber, Toni. The Holy Land Reborn: Pilgrimage and the Tibetan Reinvention of Buddhist India. University of Chicago Press, 2008.
  • Filigenzi, Anna. “A Vajrayanic Theme in the Rock Sculpture of Swat (NWFP, Pakistan)”. In G. Verardi and S. Vita (eds.) Buddhist Asia 1, Papers from the First Conference of Buddhist Studies Held in Naples in May 2001: 37-55.
  • Filigenzi, Anna. “Post-Gandharan Swat. From the Late Buddhist rock-sculptures to the Turki Śāhis dynastic centers”, in Ghani-ur-Rahman and Luca M. Olivieri (eds.) Italian Archaeology and Anthropology in Northern Pakistan (1955-2011) of Journal of Asian Civilizations, 2011: 193-210.
  • Isaacson, Harunaga. Yogācāra and Vajrayāna according to Ratnākaraśānti. In: The Foundation for Yoga Practitioners, The Buddhist Yogācārabhūmi Treatise and its Adaptation in Inida, East Asia, and Tibet, Ulrich Timme Kragh (ed.), Harvard Oriental Series, vol. 75, Harvard University Press, 2013: 1036-1051.
  • Kinsley, David R. Hindu goddesses: Visions of the divine feminine in the Hindu religious tradition. Vol. 12. Berkley: University of California Press, 1988.
  • Kuwayama Shoshin, “L’inscription du Ganesa de Gardez et la chronologie des Turki-Sāhi,” Journal Asiatique, vol 279, 1991: 267-287.
  • Lokesh Chandra. 'Oḍḍiyāna: A New Interpretation' in M. Aris & Aung San Suu Kyi, Tibetan Studies in Honour of Hugh Richardson, Warminster, 1980: 73-78.
  • Ngawang Zangpo. Guru Rinpoche: His life and times. Snow Lion Publications, 2002.
  • Ngawang Zangpo. Sacred Ground: Jamgon Kongtrul on Pilgrimage and Sacred Geography. New York: Snow Lion Publications, 2001.
  • Patrul Rinpoche. The Words of My Perfect Teacher. Translated by Padmakara Translation Group. Boston: Shambala, 1998.
  • Roy, Kaushik. Warfare in Pre-British India – 1500BCE to 1740CE. New York: Routledge 2015.
  • Sanderson, Alexis. "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period" in Genesis and Development of Tantrism, edited by Shingo Einoo, Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, 23. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009: 41-350.
  • Sanderson, Alexis. “The Śaiva Exegesis of Kashmiri” in Mélanges tantriques à la mémoire d’Hélène Brunner / Tantric Studies in Memory of Hélène Brunner, edited by Dominic Goodall and André Padoux, Collection Indologie 106, Pondicherry: Institut français d'Indologie / École française d’Extrême-Orient, 2007: 231–442.
  • Spagnesi, Piero. “Aspects of the Architecture of the Buddhist Sacred Areas in Swat”. In: Luca M. Olivieri (ed[s]): Special Issue for the 50th Anniversary of the IsIAO Italian Archaeological Mission in Pakistan of East and West, 2006: 151-175.
  • Sircar, Dineschandra. The Śākta Pīthas. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1971.
  • Tucci, Guiseppe. Travels of Tibetan Pilgrims in the Swat Valley. Calcutta: Greater India Society, 1940.
  • Tulku Thondup. Masters of Meditation and Miracles: Lives of the Great Buddhist Masters of India and Tibet. Boston: Shambhala, 2014.
  • Tulku Zangpo Drakpa. “Le'u Dünma—The Prayer in Seven Chapters to Padmākara, the Second Buddha.” Lotsawa House: Free Translations of Tibetan Buddhist Texts. Lotsawa House, 2005. Web. 22 October 2015. <http://lotsawahouse.org/>.
  • Wedemeyer, Christian K. Making Sense of Tantric Buddhism: History, Semiology, and Transgression in the Indian Traditions. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013.
  • Yeshe Tsogyal. The Lotus-born: the life story of Padmasambhava. Transl. Erik Pema Kunsang, ed. Marcia Binder Schmidt. Boston: Shambhala, 1999.

Notes

  1. ↑ Not surprisingly then does historical facts get mixed up and altered, which makes it difficult to come to definitive conclusions regarding its background and actual location.
  2. ↑ Names taken from Sanderson, Alexis, “The Śaiva Exegesis of Kashmiri” in Mélanges tantriques à la mémoire d’Hélène Brunner / Tantric Studies in Memory of Hélène Brunner, (Institut français d'Indologie / École française d’Extrême-Orient, 2007), 265. Lokesh Chandra’s 'Oḍḍiyāna: A New Interpretation' in M. Aris & Aung San Suu Kyi, Tibetan Studies in Honour of Hugh Richardson, (Warminster, 1980), 75. Gendun, Chopel, Grains of Gold: Tales of a Cosmopolitan Traveler (University of Chicago Press, 2014), 117.
  3. ↑ ‘u’ stands for udumbara, ‘rgyan’ translates as adorned, ‘yul’ means land or country. Oral account by my Tibetan friend. Original source not located yet.
  4. ↑ root ḍī + prefix “ud” + nominalization “ana”
  5. ↑ The meanings of U/Oḍyāna, U/Oḍḍiyāna, U/Oḍḍayana were confirmed by Kashinath
  6. ↑ “gold or silver girdle or belt, an ornament worn by women round the waist” or a “girdle worn by yogis while in a sitting posture, so as to bind the waist and the doubled up legs together” from Lokesh Chandra’s 'Oḍḍiyāna: A New Interpretation' in M. Aris & Aung San Suu Kyi, Tibetan Studies in Honour of Hugh Richardson, (Warminster, 1980), 75.
  7. ↑ Uḍḍīyana bandha refers to the contraction of the abdomen into the rib cage.
  8. ↑ Gendun, Chopel, Grains of Gold: Tales of a Cosmopolitan Traveler (University of Chicago Press, 2014), 117.
  9. ↑ “The Anuyoga root Tantra, the Gonpa Düpa Do (Tib. dgongs pa ‘dus pa mdo), gives the full name of King Ja as Kuñjara (Tib. kun nydza ra). Kuñjara according to Monier-Williams dictionary means “anything pre-eminent.” Thus in a compound such as rāja-kuñjara it means “an eminent king”. The sūtra places King Kuñjara in the east and on this point it agrees with the other early versions of this myth which all place King Dza in Zahor, Bengal.” From Dalton, Jacob P., The uses of the dgongs pa ‘dus pa’i mdo in the development of the rnyinng-ma school of Tibetan Buddhism, (Asian Language and Cultures: Buddhist Studies. The University of Michigan, 2002), 56. Likewise, Gendün Chöpel asserts that Zahor was probably one of two cities near Bhagalpur. Gendun, Chopel, Grains of Gold: Tales of a Cosmopolitan Traveler (University of Chicago Press, 2014), 259.
  10. ↑ Dudjom Rinpoche, The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: Its Fundamentals and History, (Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 1991), 468.
  11. ↑ Yeshe Tsogyal, The Lotus-born: the life story of Padmasambhava, (Boston: Shambhala, 1999), 208.
  12. ↑ For a full examination of this relation see Bogin, Benjamin. "Locating the Copper-Colored Mountain: Buddhist Cosmology, Himalayan Geography, and Maps of Imagined Worlds." Himalaya, the Journal of the Association for Nepal and Himalayan Studies 34, no. 2, 201.
  13. ↑ Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad, ed. Taranatha's History of Buddhism in India, (Motilal Banarsidass, 1990), 241.
  14. ↑ Dudjom Rinpoche, The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: Its Fundamentals and History, (Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 1991), 441.
  15. ↑ Ibid., 442.
  16. ↑ For an elaborate discussion of this see Ngawang Zangpo, Sacred Ground: Jamgon Kongtrul on Pilgrimage and Sacred Geography, (New York: Snow Lion Publications, 2001), 62 onwards.
  17. ↑ “The Krama (‘Sequence’ or ‘Cycle’), so-called because its devotees venerated their own cyclical phases of awareness (mental, emotional, etc.) as Goddess manifestations of the formless Kali, the heart of consciousness itself. From: “An Introduction to the Tantric ‘Krama’ lineage of Kashmir” by Christopher Tompkins and Christopher Wallis. (http://shaivayoga.com/kashmir-manuscripts_files/Intro_Krama.pdf)
  18. ↑ One of the two principle scriptures of the Krama lineage. See Sanderson, Alexis. “The Śaiva Exegesis of Kashmiri” in Mélanges tantriques à la mémoire d’Hélène Brunner / Tantric Studies in Memory of Hélène Brunner, (Institut français d'Indologie / École française d’Extrême-Orient, 2007), 260.
  19. ↑ Ibid., 266 – 267.
  20. ↑ Gray, David B., The Cakrasamvara Tantra: A Study and Annotated Translation, (American Institute of Buddhist Studies, New York, 2007), 77.
  21. ↑ Ibid., 290.
  22. ↑ Beal, Samuel. Si-yu-ki. Buddhist Records of the Western World, (London: Trübner, 1884), 167. According to Gendün Chöpel, this name could refer to the fact that the area was rich in forest and flowers. Gendun, Chopel, Grains of Gold: Tales of a Cosmopolitan Traveler (University of Chicago Press, 2014), 117.
  23. ↑ Spagnesi, Piero, “Aspects of the Architecture of the Buddhist Sacred Areas in Swat” in: Luca M. Olivieri (ed[s]): Special Issue for the 50th Anniversary of the IsIAO Italian Archaeological Mission in Pakistan of East and West, 2006, 152.
  24. ↑ For a discussion and translation of Orgyenpa’s travel accounts see Tucci, Guiseppe, Travels of Tibetan Pilgrims in the Swat Valley, (Calcutta: Greater India Society, 1940).
  25. ↑ Sanderson, Alexis, “The Śaiva Exegesis of Kashmiri” in Mélanges tantriques à la mémoire d’Hélène Brunner / Tantric Studies in Memory of Hélène Brunner, (Institut français d'Indologie / École française d’Extrême-Orient, 2007), 267.
  26. ↑ Spagnesi, Piero, “Aspects of the Architecture of the Buddhist Sacred Areas in Swat” in: Luca M. Olivieri (ed[s]): Special Issue for the 50th Anniversary of the IsIAO Italian Archaeological Mission in Pakistan of East and West, 2006, 152.
  27. ↑ Ibid., 169 – 170. For an archeological survey of the area see Spagnesi, Piero, “Aspects of the Architecture of the Buddhist Sacred Areas in Swat”. Also: Filigenzi, Anna. “A Vajrayanic Theme in the Rock Sculpture of Swat (NWFP, Pakistan)” and “Post-Gandharan Swat. From the Late Buddhist rock-sculptures to the Turki Śāhis dynastic centers”
  28. ↑ Beal, Samuel. Si-yu-ki. Buddhist Records of the Western World, (London: Trübner, 1884), 168.
  29. ↑ Sanderson, Alexis, “The Śaiva Exegesis of Kashmiri” in Mélanges tantriques à la mémoire d’Hélène Brunner / Tantric Studies in Memory of Hélène Brunner, (Institut français d'Indologie / École française d’Extrême-Orient, 2007), 266.
  30. ↑ Filigenzi, Anna, “Post-Gandharan Swat. From the Late Buddhist rock-sculptures to the Turki Śāhis dynastic centers”, in Ghani-ur-Rahman and Luca M. Olivieri (eds.) Italian Archaeology and Anthropology in Northern Pakistan (1955-2011) of Journal of Asian Civilizations, 2011: 193
  31. ↑ Filigenzi, Anna. “A Vajrayanic Theme in the Rock Sculpture of Swat (NWFP, Pakistan)”. In G. Verardi and S. Vita (eds.) Buddhist Asia 1, Papers from the First Conference of Buddhist Studies Held in Naples in May 2001, 37.
  32. ↑ Ibid., 40.
  33. ↑ Ibid., 40.
  34. ↑ Roy, Kaushik, Warfare in Pre-British India – 1500BCE to 1740CE, (New York: Routledge 2015), 88.
  35. ↑ Dalton, Jacob P., The uses of the dgongs pa ‘dus pa’i mdo in the development of the rnyinng-ma school of Tibetan Buddhism, (Asian Language and Cultures: Buddhist Studies. The University of Michigan, 2002), 266 – 268. See also Dudjom Rinpoche, The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism: Its Fundamentals and History, (Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 1991), 489.
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